There are, on the one hand, aspects which are objective because they are rooted in our biology and evolutionary history. On the other hand, there are aspects which are relative because they derive from our subjective experiences and varying human needs. It can be argued that all of this is actually relative — relative to human nature and relative to human needs/situations. At no point does Kurtz claim that there are objective “moral facts” which are wholly independent of humanity. If no sentient life existed anywhere in the universe, gravity would still remain, but would morality? It seems unlikely.
Can such ethical principles be justified? A common religious critique is that secular ethics cannot rely upon an absolute, objective “law giver” to serve as a permanent foundation for moral ideals. Kurtz, however, rebuts such a critique by arguing that it is flawed in how it is presented:
- “What does the question mean? And let me confess right off that I can make little sense of the question, “Why ought I to be moral?” as it has been traditionally formulated. For if it is meant as a universal question, it is hard to know what response would constitute an adequate solution, and even whether this question is intelligible. Moreover, it masks an underlying “quest for certainty,” as John Dewey calls it, when none can be found.”
By removing the context in which ethical values must exist, a vague demand for justification commits the Stolen Concept fallacy. Before such a question can be answered, we must first put ourselves into some particular context of human relationships and human needs. We cannot simply ask “how are ethics to be justified?” Instead, we must ask “how is this ethical value to be justified for us, here and now?” This results in conditional rather than absolute duties:
- “One has a conditional, rather than a categorical duty; it is more like a hypothesis than a dictate, amenable to critical interpretation and appraisal before it is applied in a concrete situation”
Much of his book is taken up by discussions of various “moral decencies” — basic values which Kurtz believes all humans have generally shared across cultures and times. As such, they should form the basis for any further ethical development and debate. These “decencies” include things like trustworthiness, fairness, excellence, creativity, self-discipline, etc. He is deeply optimistic that, despite all of the evidence of human flaws, we can still create a just and moral society.
Unlike many Christian books on ethics and morality, this book does not try to offer any simple answers on just how you should behave. It argues, rather, that morality is a process, and finding answers to moral questions is a quest which never really ends. The values discussed are values which must always be under discussion and refined as we learn and grow.
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